Year of Antonio Nariño

Ahora O Nunca! Las ideas son para divulgar!-  Now or Never! Ideas are to share! 

This isn't quite our usual type of post. This is neither a review or a history highlight but rather I wanted to bring attention to an event occurring in Bogota, Colombia. The national library located in the heart of La Candelaria district (see our previous posts on this area here) and is aimed towards increasing literacy and education among Colombian youth. There are still to this day many parts of Colombia were education is hard to access and higher education is almost impossible. With most universities and libraries located in large cities, rural areas are severally under served. 

The National Library has decided for the anniversary of Antonio Nariño's birth they would dedicate the entire year to improving literacy and access to educational services for Colombian children in need. Who is Antonio Nariño? He is an intellectual who penned many of the important documents and writings that inspired revolution in New Granada. He lived and worked with many of the other important figures in the Colombian Revolution such as Simon Bolivar and Francisco de Santander. Unlike Bolivar, Nariño was not a soldier nor did he have any interest in the physical aspect of revolution. Nariño was a man dedicated to intellectual pursuits and sparking a revolution through ideas. He would be responsible for hosting many of the revolutionary figures to discuss the need for independence and distributing copies of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man," which he had translated from French to Spanish. These pamphlets are considered instrumental in swaying the public towards revolution and they would also be the reason for his eventual imprisonment and exile. After traveling throughout Europe, Nariño would return to his home country, a country now independent of all Spanish control. After his death, to memorialize Nariño, the eventual presidential palace of Colombia would be named in his honor. 

The National Library chose Nariño because of what he symbolized to the nation during its early years. He demonstrated the power of information and ideas to a tyrannical power. The National Library also brought in street artists, Toxicómano, Erre and Lesivoto, to create the posters promoting the program. These posters reflect urban life in Colombia and the power of youth in changing their nation. The posters declare "Now or Never! Ideas are meant to be shared," and re-imagine Nariño as a tattooed punk revolutionary. He stands as an inspiration to youth who want to change their country for the better and promote the use of education to achieve those goals. These posters are now on display at the National Library for the duration of the year. These type of events do not seem that important for some living in countries where literacy is taken for granted, but there are still large gaps in access to education throughout the world. In Colombia, it has taken time for this gap to close and is still in that process. But with the violent years of the 1980's and 1990's now behind them, the nation is able to focus resources on problems that were ignored for years. It  demonstrates the nation's value of education and it's efforts to make education a universal right for all Colombia children. 

A Historian Reads: Out of the Jungle

When you hear the name Jimmy Hoffa what comes to mind? Probably that recent news alert when they thought they found his body under some concrete? The mob most likely? His disappearance under “suspicious circumstance”? Of course you do. It is very hard to separate Jimmy Hoffa from the Boston mob history of the late twentieth century. But is that all there is to the man? From a historians point of view, absolutely not. Jimmy Hoffa is representative of an internal fight among labor unions in the twentieth century. As leader of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Hoffa’s legacy is much more important that his acquaintance with the mob. In “Out of the Jungle,” historian Thaddeus Russell tells the story of the Teamsters as seen through the life of Jimmy Hoffa.

We have previously reviewed a book by Thaddeus Russell on general American history, however this is Dr. Russell’s specialty and it shows in this academically published book. The tone is much different and his sarcastic wit is much more subdued. However, it is well researched and acclaimed by other historians for being a novel addition to the field of labor studies.  The concept of using a singular person to explore the history of a movement or subject is not new but is applied masterfully in this book. Hoffa grew up within the Teamsters organization and by following his leadership and conflicts with other labor leaders, Russell weaves a fascinating tale about labor disputes among unions and the government.

Russell argues that Hoffa made his way up the leadership of the Teamsters due to his “practical and pragmatic” style. Instead of using ideology and idealism, Hoffa gave substantial wins to his supporters . Hoffa was not a philosopher or social leader, rather he was a working class man who fought (negotiation wise and physically) for a part of the economic pie everyone else was enjoying. He did not align himself with other labor leaders who were interested in remaking society and as a consequence could only offer their follows promises and hope. His associations with the mob and crooked politicians make sense when seen through the lens of his pragmatic strategy. Unfortunately, it would be those same alliances that had helped his cause that would land him in jail and then on a missing poster.  

As I said earlier, this book is written for an academic audience and for that reason the humor and sardonic jabs that littered his most recent book are gone. This is not to say it is a dry read, but the tone stays serious for the duration of the book with small moments of Russell’s sense of humor. I recommend this book but I want to stress this book’s intended audience. Russell discuses historiography and methodology as should any historian but this may be a turn of for some mainstream readers. These sections of the book are slow to read and seem inconsequential for people interested in getting right to the history of Jimmy Hoffa. However, I highly recommend spending time reading those sections and enjoying the book as a whole. It is a fascinating read for those interested in labor history and for those of us, like me, who are relatively uneducated in labor history. More importantly, it will help you develop a much better response for the question, “what do you know about Jimmy Hoffa?”

History Highlight: The Winter War

In case you forgot that Finland is that piece of land squished
between two major historical world powers. 

I have long had a odd obsession with the country of Finland. It started in middle school and their great heavy metal scene and just grew. The more I learned about the country, the more I wanted to visit it for myself. I finally got the opportunity three years ago and to this day it remains one of my most memorable trips. Finland is a country that I will definitely be visiting again in the future.

One of the most important parts of Finnish history, and key to understanding the Finnish mentality and identity, is the Winter War. This little talked about part of World War II is swept under the historical rug in almost all textbooks. However, it is tantamount to the history and course of this tiny nation of barely 6 million. The Winter War took place in less than a year between 1939 and 1940 between the Soviet Union and the just newly independent Finland. The Finns had gained independence from the Soviet Union shortly after the Russian Revolution for practical reasons. The Soviets just did not have the strength or energy to keep Finland under their power since they were dealing with their own revolution and extreme political upheaval. The Finns were clearly happy to have independence, however a high ranking member of the Finnish military and future Finnish president, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, warned Finland that within time the Soviet Union would be back to reclaim Finland.

Unfortunately, Mannerheim's predication came true. With war raging in Europe between the Allies and the Axis, the Soviets used the war as a distraction from their encroachment on the Finnish border. Mannerheim, in anticipation of this, had established what is now referred to as the "Mannerheim Line". These strategic lines of defense were guarded by the Finnish military and intended to keep the fighting away from population centers and the capital, Helsinki. It is interesting to note that these "Mannerheim Lines" now lie in what is now Russia. The first day of the war was on November 30, 1939 and pitted the nearly million man strong Soviet army against the Finnish army which contained barely a quarter of a million men. In addition to being severely outnumbered, the Soviets had access to weapons, tanks, and aircrafts. The Finns relied upon smuggled and stolen weapons. The statistics of the war state that were as the Soviets used to 6,000 tanks in the Winter War, the Finns would have a grand total of 32. These statistics are made even more shocking when you compare the casualties. The Soviets reported a loss about 300,000 and the Finns reported around 70,000. Almost all outside observers were stunned by the results of this conflict. It made little to no sense. Finland during the early twentieth century had been considered a poor and uneducated area. However, their lack of resources did not outweigh the Finnish fighting spirit, their love of independence, and their creativity. Despite the numbers being against them, the Finns found inventive ways of dealing with the Soviets numbers and weapons strength.

Finnish Ski Troops, you cannot make this up.

One such invention is that of the Molotov Cocktail. The name was a joke among Finns who called the Soviet bombs unleashed upon Helsinki the Molotov Breadbaskets after the Soviet politician who ordered the bombing after promising to send food to the starving citizens of Helsinki. The Finns had developed a cheap and inexpensive anti-tank technology by pouring flammable liquids into a liquor bottle, stuffing in a rag that was then set on fire and then thrown into the openings of a tank. It disabled the tank quickly and the Finns considered them the cocktail to go after the breadbaskets. In addition, the Finns utilized their great skill for skiing and had men ski between tanks and use the Molotov Cocktails before quickly escaping in time. In response to this, the Soviets attempted to use their own skiers, but found that Soviet skiers, who were accustomed to open fields, did poorly in the Finnish forest country side with its rocky terrain.

Funny but true. You gotta love statistics. 

The war continued on for close to 5 months. The Soviets had not been prepared for a drawn out war against the Finns, thinking that the invasion would end shortly after the bombing of the capital. However, the Finns were not interested in handing back their independence after such a short time. Their resilience proved an unexpected challenge to the Soviets and drove the Finns to extreme measures, including signing an alliance treaty with Nazi Germany. This decision would result in Finland being forced to pay war reparations to the Soviet Union until the mid 1980's. However, this burden placed on a fledgling nation proved to be the catalyst to Finland's industrialization and modernization. The years following the Winter War saw the transformation of Finland into a sophisticated, technologically driven, innovative country that would revolutionize phone and video game technology. The Winter War remains a tangible part of Finnish history and is critical to understand if you even want to try to make sense of the Finnish identity.

A Historian at the Cinema: West of Memphis

We learn from our history, but we generally suffer from a forgetful memory. The case of the West Memphis Three is a painful lesson in injustice and mass hysteria. The case began with the horrific murder of three young boys in West Memphis. The crime rightfully shocked the community and calls to bring the culprits to justice were immediate. It is important to state that this was a tragic and horrific crime. The victims and their families deserve justice. However, in the process of solving this crime, social fears of outsiders and alleged deviants overruled proper police work and legal proceedings. West of Memphis, a film by Amy Berg, documents the tragedy of both crimes, the homicide and the legal injustice committed upon the West Memphis Three.

Three young men, Damien Echolls, Jason Bradley, and Jessie Misskelley, known for their love of heavy metal, anti-social behavior, and lack of assimilation with the conservative town, where quickly pointed to by the community as the perpetrators. Prosecutors and police conducted a what can now be called biased and flimsy investigation that sought more to appease the towns prejudice than actual justice. The result of the investigation and trial was the conviction of the three boys, now known as the West Memphis Three. The tragedy of the murders were only compounded by the tragedy of unjust conviction.

Amy Berg's film follows the investigation and carefully analyzes the mistakes and missteps made by police and prosecutors. Suspects that were quickly dismissed without due dilligance and the eventual convicted teens who were treated in a manner that borders on criminal manipulation. However, Amy Berg is careful in her analysis. She does not fall into the trap of placing generalized blame on the community, recognizing that the murders were indeed horrific and it is hard to blame parents for passionately searching for their son's killers. The parents are treated with respect and humanity. Her harshest criticism are reserved for the investigators and prosecutors who were more interested in expediency than truth.

However, the heart of the film is the calls for justice after the trial. Amy Berg focuses on the arduous and complex process of asking for repeals and clemency by the West Memphis Three. By this point, the teens were no longer alone in their crusade for justice, celebrities, activists, and regular people had rallied around the West Memphis Three. Concerts, protests, rallies and fund raisers were organized to show solidarity with the teens and bring their cause national attention. Despite the case garnering national media attention, time after time their appeals were denied and rejected. No amount of public support or evidence of police incompetence seemed to sway the court's or the Governor's mind. The cause seemed lost until 2011. Negotiations between the no longer teens and now men's attorney and prosecutors resulted in an Alford Plea Bargain. In non legal speak, this meant they would enter a plea deal that allowed them to assert their innocence but acknowledged that prosecutors had enough evidence to convict. They were released with suspended sentences.

Is this justice? The film takes a strong position in declaring no.The amount of back and forth, rejection after rejection that Echolls, Bradley, and Misskelley were subjected to can not be called justice in my opinion. From the first day of the investigation they were deemed guilty and never given any defense. This film depicts the scary reality of the U.S justice system gone array, and demonstrates that it is often done without much push back. Berg asks the audience to examine how we as a society react to crimes. There is a sense of balance that needs to preserved. Justice to the victim and to the accused. However, it is often harder to understand justice for the accused than for the victims.

Guatavita and El Dorado

The trip that I had been most excited for since I got our plane tickets was this one. It is the origin of the myth that almost everyone is familiar with, El Dorado. El Dorado, or the Golden One, was the idea that brought Spanish conquistadors to the Americas. It drove them violently mad and fueled their cross continent treks to find the sacred site and claim it for the Spanish crown. As one would expect, the myth was more a creation of Spaniards than it was of the natives. The tiny grain of truth in the myth was massively embellished and misconstrued by greedy Europeans looking for what they believed to be rightfully theirs.

This lake is so far up in the mountains the climate is
actually different than the base. 

About an hours drive from Bogota and through a badly maintained dirt road you will reach the Guatavita Park. The drive and early morning start is worth the trip. Entry to the park includes a guided tour to the top of the lake which lasts about an hour and a half. On the way to the top you will learn about the culture of the Muisca including their agriculture, their religious practices, their political structure and other interesting aspects about this not so well known culture. It is important to note here the importance of gold to the Muisca, which is why I recommend visiting the Gold Museum prior to visiting Guatavita. Although the tour includes a visit to a reconstructed ceremonial house with photos of typical gold offerings, it is much better to see them in person at the museum to better understand the quantity and beauty of these offerings.

The connection between "El Dorado" and Guatavita goes back to the earliest days of Spanish conquest and exploration of the Americas. Nobody is sure where the original reference can be found but rumors of a bath of gold began to circulate among the Spanish. Stories of a place so innundated with gold that the locals were bathing in the precious metal caught the imagination of Spaniards looking to enrich themselves and their nation. The stories grew and turned into a tale of a city of gold, where the inhabitants wore, bathed in, ate out of, and used for every other purpose the fantastic amount of gold available in the Americas. The truth of "El Dorado" is found somewhere within these rumors.

As we begun to ascend the mountain, our tour guide stopped to explain a rather deep pass in the mountain called "El Dolor de los Muisca" or the Pain of the Muisca. Committed by Spanish conquistadors looking for gold, it is evidence of just how deep they were in gold mania. When the Spanish arrived to what is now Colombia, they were always looking for the alleged city of "El Dorado." Following rumors and information obtain from the indigienous populations, the Spaniards found their way to Guatavita. The reality of this "city of gold" was different than the gold platted metropolis they had imagined. Guatavita was a lake, high up in the mountains, that held ceremonial and religious importance. It was here were new village leaders would be trained and prepared to lead ceremonies in which the leader would be dressed in gold and descend into the lake water where he would initiate the gold offerings to the gods. This "bathing" of gold may have been what sparked the rumors of gold baths by the Spanish. After the "cacique" or leader, finished offering his gold adornments to the gods, the rest of the village would begin throwing their offerings over their shoulders into the lake.

The current day pueblo of Guatavita that is definitely worth
visiting once you make it back down the mountain.

The Spanish were insistent in their efforts to "reclaim" the gold in the lake and began a process of draining the lake with buckets. After three months of labor and little results, the Spanish gave up on this manner of claiming the gold. Their next idea would give the ravine its name. Using enslaved natives, the Spanish began a project of breaking part of the mountain to drain the lake. The Muisca people were forced to demolish and desecrate their honored lake and pathway to their gods. Draining the lake resulted in thousands of pounds of precious gold and emeralds being removed from the lake. Despite finding thousands of pounds, the Spanish wanted more. The construction of the ravine continued for decades.

Moving forward to the nineteenth and twentieth century, the lake was once again the subject of foriegn attempts to remove its riches. German and English mining companies offered to help Colombia excavate the lake for archaeological and hydrological purposes. This time using underground tunnels to find objects closer to the center of the lake, German and English explorers found even more gold and rare emeralds (Colombian emeralds are considered some of the finest in the world). Still using the cleared land area that the Spanish had created hundreds of years before, the mining expeditions would come to a sudden end. As our tour guide liked to remind us, the earth remembers and recovers. That ravine, once a sign of pain and exploitation, would become the site of a major rock slide.

It was an amazing experience to see where the gold that Colombia is famous for came from and the heartbreaking history of its exploitation during the Conquest. If you can survive the drive and the hike, I highly recommend it. It gives you a totally new appreciation for the Muisca way of life and the meaning of gold in Colombian history.

Salto de Tequendama

Beautiful and abandoned, the Hotel de Tequendama has been
 the source of urban legends and reported hauntings for years. 

After the exhausting trip to Boyaca, we decided to sleep in the next day and plan for a less demanding adventure. One location that I had been thinking about for months but had never really considered visiting was the allegedly haunted Salto de Tequendama. Located an hour south of Bogota, the abandoned hotel and its neighboring waterfall sit alone high in the mountains. The hotel, which began its life as a mansion for the wealthy visitors disembarking from the train that would run right past the building, now sits in ruin with the majority of the building off limits for safety reasons. However, the hotel is now getting new life thrown into its halls. With interest from ecological groups, its locating next to the Rio de Bogota is perfect for the hotel's new life as a research center. 

The waterfalls of Tequendama have a history that originates with the native population of the area, the Muisca. Their legends says that the waterfall was created by Muisca hero Bochica when he responded to the cries on the inhabitants of the savanna of Bogota who were suffering from an extreme flood. Bochica came to the savanna, and with his staff broke a piece of the mountain allowed the flood waters to drain away and created the waterfall.

1895: Bogotanos enjoying Tequendama in a family outing.

In more recent history, the waterfalls and the surrounding area became a popular tourist destination for the natural beauty and the natural resources found in the mountains. In 1923, construction began on what was then called the Mansion of Tequendama. Designed by architect Carlos Arturo Tapias, it was meant to welcome wealthy guests traveling by train to Bogota. By the 1950's the mansion was converted into a hotel. However, contamination in the river created an unpleasant and fowl odor. In addition to the abandonment of the train through to Bogota, these factors resulted in the hotel's abandonment in the 1990's. 

However, the hotel would not easily be forgotten. Its beauty and location would be seen by motorists traveling on the highway that passes along side the hotel. The hotel also gained a different reputation from its early glitzy and glamorous heyday. The beautiful waterfall that guests used to admire became the location of a number of suicides. An abandoned hotel and multiple suicides gave the area a reputation for being haunted and sightings of ghosts became common. 

Even without the ghosts, the hotel and the water falls have
an ethereal and timeless feel about them. 

Ironically, the very odor and contamination that drove visitors out of Tequendama is now drawing new attention to the area. Researchers from both Colombian and French organizations purchased the building and are repairing it to serve as a research headquarters. Concern for contamination has reached a critical level because of the ways it is affected fishing and water sources for the rest of Colombia. Today, the group is saving the hotel and providing tours of the third floor of the hotel (the only safe level for the public) that explains the history of the building and the mission of the ecological researchers. Your ticket fee goes towards continuing the buildings restoration and allows you the best view from inside the house. I highly recommend paying the 4 thousand pesos for this unique opportunity to step inside this magnificent house. Be forewarned, the group is aware of the area's haunted reputation and does not allow photos while inside the hotel. They are committed to re branding the hotel. 

An unexpected adventure during our trip, I genuinely enjoyed this low key opportunity to see the Salto de Tequendama. Although this might not be your first stop when visiting Bogota, I recommend taking the relatively short drive to see it if you find yourself with a spare day with nothing to do. Its a great escape from the city and is something completely different from the small pueblos that litter the area outside Bogota. Something different and unexpected, its one of the many hidden historical gems Colombia has to offer to those willing to look. 

Road Trip Through Boyaca

Colombia is a country of wide variety and to best understand that you must travel to different departments (similar to the states in the U.S) within the country. Bogota, where most of our travels have been so far, is located in the central Andean department of Cuindinamarca. Next door to the north lies the occasionally overlooked by foreigners department of Boyaca.

Our day trip began by leaving Bogota in the early morning to avoid the inconvenient "pico y placa", a system where drivers are alternatively prohibited from driving during certain times on odd or even numbered days depending on the last number of the license plate. It is an effort to decrease traffic which I have never seen work successfully in 23 years. Once out of the city, we were in the beautiful mountainous countryside. Passing through the small towns of Chia, Cajica, and others is a treat as you encounter idyllic farms, colonial haciendas, and historic houses.

The sixteenth century painting of La Virgen de Chiquinquira.

Our first stop was the small town of Chiquinquira, located in the south border region of Boyca. Considered the religious capitol of Colombia, the main attraction in this otherwise sleepy town in the basilica in the heart of town. The Basilica of Chiquinquira draws Colombians from around the country because it is the location of the 1586 apparition of La Virgen de Chiquinquira, now considered the patron saint of the nation. Within the basilica is sixteenth century painting representing the patron saint that is considered a holy relic. Interestingly, this painting was created using native spun cloth and located sources paints, giving the painting a connection to the local people of Colombia. Today, pilgrims come to the basilica asking the relic for favors and in return offer prayers and devotion.

The current basilica was build in the 1920's after the Virgen de Chiquinquira, and her painting, were officially ordained as the patron saint of Colombia in 1919. The basilica, built a couple miles away from the original apparition site, was constructed with the intent and purpose of housing the sacred painting. Next to the basilica is the University of Saint Thomas that houses a large collection of religious artifacts from Chinquiquira in their museum. Well worth the 2 thousand peso entry fee (roughly 75 cents in USD), the museum explains the history of the church and the apparition as well as allowing you to view the room in which Pope John Paul II stayed during his visit to the small town.

Raquira is a town of colors and creativity.

After lunch and pictures in the plaza, we were off to our main destination, Raquira. A little village famous for its artisans and crafts, yet the town is easy to miss. The artisan and commercial district is no more than three blocks including the main plaza. Despite its size, we were mesmerized by the variety of crafts that are so typical of Colombia and this region. The hardest decision was deciding what to buy and which store to buy it from. Remembering our luggage weight limit, I decided to stick with simple and small. However, the most curious thing about this town and the thing that still remains a mystery to me and my family is the amount of naked and phallic statues around town. They were everywhere and no one could answer me why. A cousin of mine, who visit the town at least once a year, attributed it to a fertile environment.

My favorite stop from the entire trip. A town that is so well preserved that it deceives visitors and keeps history alive.

After shopping and miraculously fitting everything we bought in the car, we took off to our final destination, Villa de Leyva. If you've never been to Cartagena, then at least come here. When you think of a romantic historical colonial town, this is what you imagine. A town in which all houses (all built before the 1700's) are painting white with colorful trims, where colorful flowers grow and hang off the walls and roofs, and where even the flowers are famous for emitting a "romantic" smell called "la noche del caballero." Park where you can and then get lost in the town. We began in the famous plaza, which by the time we got there at night, was lit up and coming to life with music, street performers, and horse drawn carriages. This colonial town was founded in 1572 and with the way the buildings and original streets are preserved it is easy to forget what time period you are really in. There is a reason this city is now popular with engaged and honeymooning couples. Our time there was too brief. We had planned to get back to Bogota by 10pm but we found ourselves wandering the streets, talking about the history of different buildings, and enjoying the sights that were all new to me late into the night. We would arrive in Bogota closer to midnight. In the future, Villa de Leyva will have to be revisited and the stay will be much longer than several hours.

A Day in Zipaquira

The entrance to the park with the salt deposit mountain behind. 

Our second stop was an hour north of Bogota day trip to the national wonder Zipaquira. The small town, that has grown exponentially in the past 10 years, is similar in style to many small colonial town that make up the countryside. However, the reason national and international tourists flock to this site is to visit the magnificent salt mines, the second largest salt deposit of the country. This mine is unique. Inside its depths lies a hand carved cathedral.

The cathedral of Zipaquira began originally as a way for Colombian mine workers to attend weekly mass without leaving the mines. The patron saint of the mines, La Virgen de Guasca, is named after the indigenous word for tunnel or mind. This mine was in operation long before the conquistadors reached South America. In fact, the first group to take advantage of the large salt deposit was the Muisca. Using clay pots, they collected water from the mountain, then heated them to evaporate the water which would leave the remaining salt in a dry block at the bottom of the pot. Salt, valued higher than gold, was used as currency by the Muisca and other tribes.

The Miner's chapel before the grand salt cathedral. 

When the Spanish arrived in the New World, they soon discovered the treasure of Zipaquira. They also wanted the valuable resource the mine provided but would extract it in far more violent way. Indigenous populations were enslaved and forced to mine the mountain for the Spanish crown. As history progressed, mining of the mountain continued but was done by voluntary and fairly employed workers rather than slaves. In the twentieth century, mining became technologically driven and utilized dynamite and then hydraulic methods.

The mine's church had humble beginnings. Originally, a way for devout Catholic miners to attend mass while working underground in order to ask for protection, the mine grew into an elaborate tribute to the Catholic faith. The original salt cathedral was opened to the public in 1954. It consisted of three naves and a cross, all mined out of salt. Due to structural concerns, this mine was closed to the public in 1990. However, construction on another salt cathedral would soon begin. In 1995, the new cathedral opened which is the one standing today.

On the path of the Stations of the Cross that
intersects with the active mine.

When you enter the mine you begin your decent by walking down the stations of the cross. A vital aspect of the Catholic religion, each station consists of a symbolic representation of the event described by each station. They invite visitors to meditate on the stations and understand how, for miners going to work, these stations provide comfort and hope that no danger will come to them underground. After you make your way through the stations, past the basilica inspired dome and through the choir pews, you will find your self in the miner's chapel. A modest chapel designed by the miners themselves, it is decorated with images of their patron virgin, Guasca. Her hands and face are covered in soot as a reminder of who she is there to protect. Finally, you enter the heart of the salt mine, the cathedral. The 16 meter tall cross is carved into the salt making it the tallest cross underground in the world. At this point, visitors will find themselves 180 meters underground.

The history of this mine reflects the history of the country. Despite the horrific actions taken by some trying to take advantage of what the mine had to offer, the mine now provides the country with a valuable resource financially but also a source of religious inspiration. Today tourists from around the world and the country flock to see the first wonder of Colombia. I cannot recommend visiting Zipaquira enough. Despite having visited it almost every trip I've taken to Colombia since I was a child, it still stuns me in its beauty and grandeur. Make the trip, you won't regret it!

La Candelaria- Bogota: Part 1

La Casa del Marques de San Jorge (Bogota, Colombia),
currently housing the Colombian Museum of Archeology.

I just got back from visiting my second home, Colombia, a country I have visited numerous times, but have yet to know completely. This trip was dedicated to introducing the boyfriend to family and the iconic sights of the capital, Bogota. Even though we spent the majority of the trip visiting places I am familiar with, there were opportunities to know brand new sites and gain an even deeper knowledge of this country I love so much.

If there is one place to visit when you are in Bogota, Colombia it must be La Candelaria district. Located in the north part of the city, at the foot of the holy site Monserate, this colonial era area is the birth place of Santafe de Bogota. When you arrive, you must complete your journey by walking. Touring the area in a car or taxi is firstly difficult because many parts are now pedestrians only, and secondly, unsatisfying because the beauty of the district lies in admiring it's architecture, the historical plaques, and unique features.

Our first day in the city was spent in La Candelaria, my favorite part of the city. We took a taxi and began walking to our first destination, El Museo de Archeologia (the Museum of Archaeology). It is located within the historical Casa de San Jorge (house of San Jorge). The house was purchased by the Marque Jorge Miguel Lozano, a creole aristocrat, in 1784. A merchant by trade, the Marque Jorge had developed a significant level of influence in the Spanish court. His descendants would play a large role in the independence of Colombia. Today, the house is home to a collection of colonial and native art. The deceivingly small house actually masks a large interior and courtyard. Upon entering, you are invited to ascend to the second floor to a large hall hosting colonial art brought over by Spanish conquistadors. The majority of the art is religious and reminds visitors of how conquistadors tried to recreate Spain in the New World and wielded Catholicism as a blunt weapon upon native populations. The majority of the collection in the museum is dedicated to native art and artifacts. The layout is organized by type of artifacts (religious, funerary, food preparation etc.) but also by tribe (Tayrona, Muisca, etc). This organization accurately represents the diversity of the native populations and dispels the misconception that indigenous South Americans were a homogeneous group. Rather the collection highlights the variety of design, techniques, paints, and practices by these unique groups.



Iconic and beautiful, La Balsa de Oro. This intricate
representation of the cacique on his journey to the heavens
symbolizes Muisca mastery of gold and the riches of Colombia.

After this museum, we went walking through the cobblestone streets to make our way to the infamous and original Museum of Gold. Another must see site, this museum hosts among the largest collection of Pre-Columbian gold in the Americas. A museum which is constantly changing and innovating its presentation, the current set up is definitely among its best that I've seen. In almost every one of my visits to my second home country, I have made the visit to this museum. This time I was pleasantly surprised by a new addition to the exhibit. The first section of the museum is dedicated to explaining the craft of metallurgy and the principles of mixing metals. By understanding the delicate and complex art and science, one has a better understanding of how advanced the Muisca society where prior to European contact. There are even some techniques are still not completely understood by archeologists and historians. After this section, the museum begins to present gold pieces according to culture and region. These rooms are dedicated to not only gold but wood crafts, jewelry, and other crafts that are unique to the different tribes that participated in the gold trade. However, the true highlight of the museum is found in the third section. Here you find the singular signature and iconic gold artifact that is instantly recognizable as the representative of Colombian gold, La Balsa de Oro. This piece has captured public and academic interest for years and still commands visitors to appreciate its detail and beauty.

Lastly, we continued our day in the historical district by walking to the equally important Museo Nacional. This former prison that dates back to the early days of the Revolution, holds more treasures of the nation aside from gold. Here visitors will find the proud history of Colombia on display in all its glory and forms. The exhibit begins by acknowledging and recognizing the native people of Colombia and the complex society in existence before Spaniards ever reached the shores of Cartagena. This exhibit then flows into a collection of Spanish artifacts from the earliest colonies. It includes daily household objects to religious icons to gold painted and emerald covered crucifixes and instruments. It is hard to deny the beauty and passion in Catholic art and in Colombia they are present everywhere. However, the focus of this museum is in the revolutionary era collection. Halls are filled to the ceiling with revolutionary paintings of battles and revolutionaries. Simon Bolivar and Francisco Paula de Santander, friends and rivals forever remembered together, are ever present in this museum and remind visitors how influential both men remain to this day in Latin America. The last floor of the museum focuses on Colombia in the modern age and has an entire hall dedicated to reevaluating how our history is remembered. It encourages visitors to confront how multilayered Colombian (and as an extent Latin American) history. It is not the history of one group or religion or culture. Colombia is a mix of African, European, Indigenous, and even Arab influences. What we call Colombian is the result of thousands of years of encounters, not all done in peace. However, the Colombia of today is culmination of these events, the good and the bad, and this museum aims to help Colombians understand the past in order to move forward.

This was the first of our two days in La Candelaria district and the first of a week in Colombia. More posts will follow and explore the history and beauty of the country I call my second, but equally important, home.

A Historian Reads: Coming of Age in Buffalo

As the previous review of Grace Palladino's Teenager: An American History noted, studies of youth and youth culture have unfortunately fallen to the trap of homogenizing a culture in the efforts to understand it. William Graebner's 1987 book Coming of Age in Buffalo was an early attempt to introduce diversity to the study of youth. He argues that youth are not all the same across the nation. Instead of approaching youth strictly as an age group, Graebner offers readers the option of looking at youth through the regional, racial, social, religious, and economic sub groups that they belong to. He does this by presenting Buffalo, NY as a case study and example of how to approach youth from the regional perspective.

Youth in Buffalo are divided by race and religion, notes Graebner, and this impacts how these youth interacted and behaved. Also important to note, is that these differences also influenced how adult authority figures reacted to these youth and their feelings towards them. Graebner uses school yearbooks, church pamphlets, and parent teacher association publications to teach readers about these divisions. However, Graebner quickly notes that these materials, even those produced by high school students, are ultimately filtered through adult authority figures and embedded with their ideas of propriety and youth. Here he stumbles upon one of the greatest problems facing historians of youth cultures and "deviant" cultures. They are rarely the creators of the primary sources about them. As seen in studies regarding teenage pregnancy in the 1940's and LGBT communities in the early twentieth century, many of the primary sources used by historians in their research are created by those in the dominant culture who record these communities and individuals using their social lenses. Youth are similarly impacted by these phenomenon because much of what they consume or create is done through the help of adults who generally exercise greater power and influence. Graebner identifies this issue and quick to note the fallacy that it creates. Studying youth often leads to greater information about adults.

This books is relatively short in length for a university press, however it is packed with detailed information about Buffalo teen culture and the diversity within. It does so through very clear writing and organization that is never confusing, overwhelming, or dull. More importantly, Graebner adds a unique spin to the tradition academic history book and includes large photos, articles, drawings, and ads from Buffalo that have an almost "scrapbook" feel. It involves the reader to a larger degree because no longer are you just reading about teen hang outs but you see photos of actual teenagers in Buffalo at a friend's house listening to music. It takes history out of the inhuman analysis and reminds us that our subjects lived and experienced life the same way we did.

Despite methodological issues that appear with a study about youth, Graebner moves the literature forward by acknowledging these trappings and using this admission to make a better analysis of youth. However, it is Graebner's approach to the generalization of youth that makes this book so noteworthy. His ideas, although provoking, did not catch on in the study of youth despite the influential nature of his book (it is frequently cited in academic and popular publications about youth and the 1950's until today). I believe it is a book worth revisiting for its theoretical thesis and can be used to inspire more detailed and localized studies of youth in America. For too long, American youth have been categorized into a homogeneous label that ignore the richness of natural diversity and this is doing more harm than good to the study of youth.

A Historian Reads: Renegade History of the United States

Renegade historian writes the renegade history of the United States is a great way to describes Dr. Thaddeus Russell's most recent book (his previous book Out of the Jungle will be reviewed soon). Labor and Americanist historian Dr. Russell went from tenure track position at Bernard College to an adjunct (not tenured or secured) position at Occidental College because of his unorthodox approach to history. So it is natural that he would go onto write his answer or response to Howard Zinn's People's History of the United States and Micheal Allen and Larry Schweikart's Patriot's History of the United States. For those unfamiliar with these books, they are considered the right and left wing version of American history. Those who love one tend not the like the other. Russell comes from an approach that is radically different than the people's or the patriot's. He approaches American history from the point of view of renegades, degenerates, criminals, and ne'er do wells. In A Renegade History of the United States, Russell attempts to introduce renegades as the hero of American history.

In both People's and Patriot's, the heroes of American history are the hard working and law abiding Americans. Russell counters this idea by proposing that it is the criminal and renegade class of Americans who should be thanked for the freedom Americans enjoy today. Without the drunkards of Boston, many of the early incidents in the movement for American independence would not have occurred. He points out that the Founding Fathers of America were deeply troubled by the behavior Americans exhibited. John Addams wrote about his abhorrence for public dancing and open prostitution that were common in the colonies. It was during this time that the American colonies became a safe haven for Europeans looking for sexual promiscuity. In the cities it became common for women in lower socio-economic classes to own bars, ask for divorces, and have children out of wedlock without much consequence. Bars, brothels, and saloons were often mixed race. This did not sit well with the Founders and often caused doubt if independence was indeed worth the price. Russell uses this to demonstrate that it was not the Founding Fathers who we should thank for the continuing spirit of rebellion and freedom of association. Rather, it is those who chose hedonism and social impropriety that resisted attempts at "civilizing" by an elite class that wanted to remodel the newly independent nation into a British styled imitation.

Ahh! People dancing and having fun!

Moving into the twentieth century, Russell continues the narrative of how those deemed by society as "renegades" or "outsiders" do more for preserving essential individual rights than any political class. In the case of Prohibition, it is the mafia that serves as the defender of LGBT rights. In a history that is rarely discussed, Russell explains how during a time when the Mafia was busy outmaneuvering the law in order to fulfill American's thirst for illegal alcohol, they found a common interest with the LGBT community. Gay bars were still operated under secrecy and with the advent of Prohibition they found themselves trying to hide both their alcohol and their true nature. Despite the heavy influence of Catholicism within the Italian mafia, the Cosa Nostra entered into a partnership with many gay bars, providing them with alcohol and protection from the police. With many police officers and departments under their influence, the mafia found it beneficial to protect gay bars from raids and use them as distributors for the main source of income. This mutually beneficial relationship helped preserve gay culture in America throughout the early twentieth century.

Although you may not find yourself agreeing with all of Russell's conclusions, his book does do an excellent job of providing a new lens to approach history. Instead of a Marxist or "Great Man" approach, he offers history and the struggle for civil and individual rights as one that pits "the proper class" against those who resist it in favor of doing what they wish to do as a renegade. He introduces new heroes to American history such as prostitutes, criminals, the mafia, and drunkards as the true defenders and activists for many of the rights we enjoy today or are slowly recovering. It may not sit well with many, but renegades are the source for instigation that is needed to reclaim rights that are unfairly taken or withheld from many Americans throughout our history. I thoroughly enjoyed this book and Russell's radical perspective and would recommend it to everyone looking for a different approach to American history outside of the two sided, left vs right dichotomy. This book asks you to open you mind a little bit and to reconsider the narrative of this nation's history.

A Historian Reads: The Woman Who Would Be King

While on vacation I devoured Dr. Kara Cooney's most recent publication, The Woman Who Would Be King. Dr. Cooney, a practicing Egyptologist who teaches at UCLA, wrote this book as a biography based on her research in Egypt but also as an attempt to understand Hatshepsut's psychological development. In the preface, Dr. Cooney addresses that some of her conjectures may not be well received by the Egyptologist community but that it is necessary in places where there is no other evidence available. However, she defends her decision by explaining that her characterization of the Pharaoh is based on events, her actions, and Dr. Cooney's understanding of women in the ancient world.

The book begins by describing what life would have been like for the young princess living in the royal palace. Her family is new to the crown. Her father, Thutmose I, came to the throne after a power vacuum brought him into power. As a young child and royal family member, she would have been inducted into the religious practices and become witness to the political maneuvers required to run the kingdom. Her marriage to her half brother brought her the title of Wife of the King and Wife of the God. This marriage resulted in daughters but Thutmose II's concubine was able to produce the desired son. This son, Thutmose III, would play a large role in the life and career of Hatshepsut.

After the death of her husband/half brother, Hatshepsut began to position herself to take the throne. Her first action was to have herself declared co-regent. From here, she used national building projects, diplomacy, and political brilliance to cement herself (literally) as Pharaoh and supreme leader of Egypt. However, the young Thutmose III who she was able to keep under control would not stay young and impressionable forever. As he grew into a young man, he began to fight back and regaining his crown. After Hatshepsut's death, her successor would do everything within his power to remove her name, memory, and legacy from Egyptian record.

Dr. Cooney's writing is hypnotic. I found myself wanting the rest of the world to go away so I could devote myself to reading. Her ability to synthesize prose and history is envious and do not think for a second that Dr. Cooney is sacrificing education for entertainment. After finishing the book (that was a sad moment) I better understood what she meant in her preface. There is a lot of presumptions made but they are not unbelievable. Her characterizations of what Hatshepsut might have felt during ceremonies, childbirth, or in political debates makes logical sense and are part of what makes this book so enjoyable to read. Dr. Cooney humanizes the notorious Pharaoh and gives her flesh and blood emotions and desires. This is a book I will be reading over and over again!

A Historian Reads: Sin No More

In a class about vice crime, we were assigned to read our own professor's book. At first this came across as somewhat narcissistic and self serving, until I read it and realized that it was a great book. Sin No More: From Abortion to Stem Cells, Understanding Crime, Law, and Morality in America by Drs. John Dombrink (my wonderful professor) and Daniel Hillyard explores the space where morality and the law intersect. In criminology, there is a distinction made between crimes with victims (murder, assault, burglary etc) and those that are victim-less, otherwise known as vice crimes. Crimes with victims are generally not dispute about their status as a crime. It is hard to argue that murder is something we should allow as a society. Vice crimes, however, are less black and white. They bring up questions about morality, the role of government to enforce morality, and the purpose of the law.

As seen in the subtitle, this book covers topics as diverse as abortion, stem cells, marriage equality, gambling, and others. Both authors take a historical perspective to the topics and divide each chapter by type of vice crime. They then explore the historical development of the vice crime including how they came to be (or in some cases, reappeared), their origins with specific ethnic groups or social classes, the legislation written in response and modern debates surrounding their legality or illegality. In doing so, the authors bring out the nuances and unique debates that each topic creates rather than generalizing patterns of legalization and criminalization.

From Stonewall to the Facebook trend.
Dombrink and Hillyard note that on a whole,
trends are in favor of decriminalization. 

However, there is a greater overarching lesson to be learned through their historical and sociological analysis. Regardless of what vice crime you focus on, there is a national trend towards becoming more tolerant of these behaviors and peeling back the legislation that wastes money towards prosecuting victim-less crimes. Despite, social conservative cries about the decaying morality of the United States, it would appear that we are just becoming more tolerant of these former "immoral" behaviors in a healthy fashion. Just as legalizing heroin in Portugal did not cause the entire tiny nation to become heroin users, and legalizing gay marriage in most of Europe did not result in every getting gay married, so shall the United States pass into a state that worries less about their neighbor's behavior inside their home and focuses on actual physical crimes in which victims are due their justice.

Because I had Dr. Dombrink as a professor, I got the opportunity to talk with him a lengths about his approach to law, crime, and society. Something unique about his approach is that he is very aware of the left right paradigm that exists within a lot of research and views this as a biased way to treat the American public. He acknowledges the variety and hybrid political views that Americans have and uses this to hone his analysis. Rather than see increased tolerance as a rise in liberal thought, he instead sees it as a rise in individualist and libertarian ideas that he views as a common feature of millennials, regardless of the political affiliation. This new (at the time of publication in 2007) approach lends itself to a less political analysis and a more human one. Dombrink and Hillyard see these trends as reflective of humanity rather than of any political or economic development. At the end, the authors are positive and hopeful for the American political scene and trust that as people become less judgmental and less interested in controlling the behavior of others so shall the system slide in their favor.

History Highlight: Harry J Anslinger Part 3- The Reds, The Dragons, and the FBN

The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941 dragged the United States into a war it had been desperate to avoid. Roosevelt used the horrific event to declare war on the Nazis and their allies, the Japanese. Anslinger saw the American public focus their attention on the war and the military buildup of the nation. The war effort meant rations for the public and increased funds for the military. No to be outmaneuvered by the war, Anslinger took the war as an opportunity to re-brand the efforts of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics. His speeches began to speak of the evils of the Japanese and their opium smuggling. He characterized opium smuggling as another extension of the war and his agents as unsung soldiers. The result of the Japanese smuggling was, in his own words, equivalent to "multiple Pearl Harbors".

Anslinger and the media, a complex relationship.

However, the war would eventually come to an end, China (seen as an ally during the war) became a communist state, and Japan evolved into our new ally. Without missing a beat, Anslinger rewrites the narrative of the war on drugs to accommodate these changing alliances. His new message forgave and forgot about the Japanese role in opium smuggling and turned its ire toward the alleged center for opium production, China. The Red Scare would also influence the language Anslinger used as drugs became synonymous with a communist plot to overthrow the United States. With the panic over communism spreading across the nation, Anslinger offered himself and his agency as defenders of American morality, democracy, and sobriety. Throughout the rest of the Cold War, Anslinger would continue to tie the FBN's mission to foreign policy and national security. His tenure as commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics would last over 30 years and end in 1962 when he retired. The agency he had built up in strength and influence would only continue until 1968. Without its tenacious and ambitious commissioner, the FBN floundered and would be merged with the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control (a branch within the Food and Drug Administration) to become the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs. Again, this new agency would lack permanency without Anslinger guidance and in 1973, under the orders of President Nixon, be merged once more to form the modern Drug Enforcement Agency. Nixon would enhance the power and authority of the DEA in his efforts to fight the re-imagined war on drugs. His policies (and those of subsequent presidents) would be the initiatives that Americans are familiar with today.

History Highlight: Harry J. Anslinger Part 2- Making a Bureau and Reefer Madness

By the early 1930's Anslinger now had control over his own bureau dedicated to the enforcement of the Harrison Act. However, this law was restricting in his view and only tackled a fraction of the narcotic problem in America. To give his agency permanency and broader jurisdiction, Anslinger began a nationwide publicity campaign to get the public and Congress on his side. The first move he made was towards horse racing. In the world of horse racing, it was common and not unheard of to use performance enhancing drugs to win races. Anslinger brought the trend to national attention and called for regulation and enforcement. The agency to be charged with this task, his Federal Bureau of Narcotics. Congress agreed and gave him the power to send agents to race tracks across the country to test horses and arrest drug peddlers.

However, Ansligner was not content to keep the Bureau testing horses for the rest of its existence. By early 1932, he found a cause in the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act. It would strengthen the allegedly weak language of the Harrison Act of 1914 and ensure stiffer penalties and fees against violators. Anslinger, with the help of his friend Randolph Hearst and the Hearst publishing chain, publicly advocated and encouraged its passage across the United States. At the beginning, only 9 states would pass the act. Frustrated, Anslinger began an even stronger media campaign alleging the effects of these narcotics to cause "reefer madness" and "sex craze." This image of drug use would be propagated by many family and children interest groups and even be picked up by Hollywood in a series of low budget, exploitation films that capitalized on the scandalous image of a narcotic user and its alleged consequences.

These films, in addition to propaganda films produced by the U.S government, helped create an era of misinformation about narcotics in the United States. Rumors and myths replaced any actual facts regarding the actual affects about drugs. This is most seen in an incident between Anslinger and New York Mayor La Guardia. Published in 1944, the La Guardia Committee Report described the work of medical researchers into the effects of marijuana and other narcotics on humans and their recommendation for how the government should proceed in its regulation and classification. The report, the first of its kind in the United States, surprisingly found marijuana to be relatively harmless in reasonable doses and to have less damaging long lasting effects than alcohol and opiates. More importantly, it argued against the government narrative of marijuana being addictive and crime inducing. As expected, Anslinger's first response is immediate condemnation of the report as un-scientific and a fraud. He would then make it impossible for researchers to conduct any more inquiries into the side effects of marijuana, or other narcotics, without his permission. This requirement ensured that Anslinger would have control over what results were being found. With the La Guardia Report behind him, he would continue to move forward in pushing his agency's agenda and manipulating public fears to his advantage. However, with the tragic attack on Pearl Harbor, Anslinger found a new way to bring drug enforcement to the public eye.

To be continued!

History Highlight: Harry J Anslinger Part 1- The Prohibition Bureau

Clearly the person who shot this patrol car
 didn't see the sign . 

The War on Drugs is something most people grew up knowing of but never really understanding its meaning or consequences. It's history is generally less known by the public and most usually point to Nancy Regan's "Just Say No" campaign as the beginning of the government's anti-drug policy. The story began far early in 1914 with the passage of the Harrison Act. The law regulated and taxed the prescription, purchase, and distribution of narcotics, with an emphasis on opiates. In practice, this law would mostly affect doctors and their ability to prescribes patients opiate derived medicine for pain. This would be the first law in America to criminalize narcotic purchases. However, there was still no federal institution dedicated to persecuting narcotic use.

Prohibition agents in Jamaica inspecting confiscated goods. 

In 1918, America became a dry nation. Prohibition was the law of the land and the Prohibition Bureau was established to ensure Americans followed the law. As history would demonstrate, they did an excellent job. During its final years, a unit was added to the Prohibition Bureau that would be dedicated to narcotic law enforcement. However, its exsistance was threatened when the overturning of Prohibition made the Prohibition Bureau irrelevant. In this unit was a rising star in the federal government, a former State Department worker and Prohibition agent named Harry J. Anslinger.

Anslinger worked his way up through state and federal law enforcement agencies until he got to the Prohibition Bureau. There he transfered to Jamaica during the 1920's to stop Jamaican and American rum smuggler attempting to reach the United States. His tenure there would end and he would return to the United States where a lucky connection would bring him into the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, officially seperated from the Prohibition Bureau and founded in 1930. The Bureau's comissioner, the unfortunately named General Nutt, would be forced to step down with several months of his appointment due to some criminal activity his son had gotten involved in. Anslinger's connections and experience made him an ideal candidate was was placed as acting commissioner until he was promoted to full commissioner a month later.

With his experience in the Prohibition Bureau, Anslinger had seen the danger of having the public and the government turn against the mission of a bureau. The best way to protect any agency would be to expand its jurisdiction. To be continued!

A Historian Reads: American Nations

Since the publication of Benedict Anderson's Imagined Communities in 1983, academics across the disciplines have had to reexamine their understandings of the nation state. In today's world, it is natural to think in terms of "the nation" and the national narrative of history. Anderson's seminal work explained the process in which we are socialized to think in terms of the nation and why the nation is a creation of the nineteenth century. Prior to the nation, civilizations existed in terms of empires and kingdoms. The people who lived within these contexts existed as subjects rather than citizens. They have no national identity. Anderson argued that the nation is an imagined community. It allows citizens to believe themselves to be a part of a greater community despite most likely never meeting the majority of this community. In the history of the United States, historians have stuck to a nationalist translation of the country's history. However, Colin Woodard's book, American Nations, goes against this trend and introduces the idea of transnational or regional history into the narrative of the United States.

Woodard divides the national into 11 regions that each contain a different and unique history which explains the modern culture of these regions. He approached the subject by trying to understand the root of today's deep political divides and sees them as a result of these different nations and their varying heritage. These nations are: First Nation, the Left Coast, El Norte, the Far West, Deep South, New Netherlands, Greater Appalachia, Yankeedom, New France, the Midlands, and Tidewater. The book follows history chronologically while also separating chapters by the different nations. An example of a regional history and how he uses it to explain modern political divides is in California. His analysis divides California between two nations: El Norte (Southern California) and the Left Coast (Northern California). The Left Coast is made up of migrants from an eastern nation, Yankeedom, whose residents prized social cooperation, a strong central government, and elitist value. They brought their values and opinions to the little inhabited northern California and successfully established a replica of Yankeedom. However, this created tension between the Protestant Anglo migrants to California and the Catholic Hispanic Californianos who inhabited southern California. These Californianos, who lived in El Norte, were mostly ranchers who prized independence, cultural pride, and quick adaptation. When California was annexed into the United States, the two poles of the states retained their personalities and as time went by would become two very different regions and voting blocks.

From a historical perspective, I find Woodard (a journalist) remarkably groundbreaking. He breaks away from a trend that has plagued the historical field since the days of the U.S revolution and introduced the newer transnational style that better explains historical progression. Transnational history is not anything new to historians, but to the general public it represents a major shift. Woodward does this successfully because of his entertaining, lively, and smart writing. His style of writing is meant for a popular audience, but he does not allow this to prevent him from providing deep analysis and a rich history of each region. Each chapter is filled with details but never does it feel dense or overwhelming, a difficult achievement. Woodard also provides an answer to those skeptics of the humanities and the generally uninterested who repeatedly ask "why is history important? Why does studying this even matter?" He demonstrates that history is a framework to understand our modern world, views, actions, and events. Without understanding historical development and progression, those skeptics will be left misunderstanding and miss-explaining current debates and political shifts. Rarely do things spontaneously occur, there is almost always a progression. Woodard demonstrates that historical understanding is needed more today than ever before.